Rasho Rashev Introduction Рашо Рашев Увод н и дум и Christina Angelova, Mark. Stefanovich Henrieta Todorova Христина Ангелова, Марк Стефанович Хенриета Тодорова Кратка биография

signing the Belgae as a different ethnie group, there is little doubt that they were ethnically Celtic. While the Belgae may have had links to the peoples across the Rhine, they also retained strong ties with Celtic peoples outside their confederation. The Remi tribe were patrons of the Carnutes (B.C. IV, 5) and the Bellovaci had strong links with the Aedui tribe (B.C. II, 14,2). In the first page of his Commentaries, he also writes of them speaking a different dialect from other Gauls (not a different language), while Strabo (IV, 1,7,6), also speaks of slight differ­ences of dialect and indeed says that the Gaul­ish of Belgica was not much different from the language ofthe .F.dui, the Gaulish tribe settled between the Loire and the Seine.We also know from Ausonius that the V'olcae Tectosages tribe called themselves Belcae Tectosagi:

Qua rapitur praeceps Rhodanus genitore

Lemanno,

benna.%

(Ordu Urbium Nobilumi. XIII, 7-10; 'Bel­cae = Volcae' - Cf. Pauly CCCIXVIII, III, Cols. 198-199).

Of the Volcae Tectosages tribe Caesar fur­ther informs us that they had occupied territory inside Germania itself, - 'It was in this way that the V'olcae Tectosages came to take possession of the most fertile districts of Germania, near the Hercynian forest, which seems to have been known to Eratosthenes and some other Greeks under the name of Orcynian. There that tribe-has maintained itself to this day, and enjoys a great reputation tor justice and courage' (B.C. VI, 24). Tacitus (Tac. Germania, XXVIII) re­peats Caesars' information and mentions other Celtic people east of the Volcac - the Boii in Bohemia and the Cottini in Silesia. Ammianus Marcellinus. in a detailed passage about the Gauls also adds - 'the Druids relate that part of the population was really indigenous, but that others had come in from the outermost isles and the regions beyond the Rhine: ('Drasida? niem-orant revera fuisse populi partem indigenati! sed alios quoque ab insulis extimis confluxisse et tractibus Transrhcnais; XV, 9,2: Ammianus's source is Timagenes of Alexandria, a valuable historian who relates most ofthe classical tradi­tions about the Cclts.). Marcellinus propounds another reason for their migration - 'They were driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising ofthe waves', (Creb-ritae bellorumet adluvione fervidi marissedibus suisexpulsos; op cit), which suggests earlier con­tacts with the Germani.

The expansionist tendency of the Belgae tribes is well attested to. In Hispania Tarraco-nensis we linci the placename Belgida (Diod. XXXI, 39), and also a Belgica. Another city Suessatium recalls the name ofthe Belgic Sues-siones (see HUBERT II, 77). Intel estingly we also find in Spaili a people called the Germani who were Celto-Iberians (Plinv III, 25). Possibly best documented in historical, archaeological and numismatic sources is the Belgae expansion into s. Britain and Ptolemy (Ptolemy 3,13) men­tions a civitas Bclgarum, which covered castcrn Somerset. Wiltshire and the north of Hamp­shire. In writing of Britain, Caesar commented that the coastal areas, 'maritima pars', had by bis time come under the influence of people of a Belgic origin - ex Belgio transierant'. He fur­ther describes Kent, the territory over which he advanced, as 'quae regio est maritima omnis', which some historians, have interpreted to meati that it was the only maritime territory. However, as Rodwell comments, "the scuse of Caesar's ac­count suggests that it was an important part of a wider maritime district", an assumption that can be supported by évidence of coi nage (see Rodwell 1976, 208).While it bas usually been argued that the invaders settled in Kent and the Thames valley region and that Gallo-Belgic coins were associateci with the incoming migra­tion, this now seems less likely , and a stronger case can be made for a limited incursion into the east Soient région penetrating Hampshire. The strengest évidence for this is that under the early Roman reoi gani/ation of the prov­ince this area of Hampshire was known as the canton ofthe Belgae. One of their main towns was called Venta Belgarum, now Winchester. Caesar (B.C. V, 12, 1-2) informs us that, 'The interior ol Britain is inhabitée! by people who, according to their own tradition, are aboriginal. The coast is occupied by others, who came from Belgia on looting or warlike expéditions, and bave almost ail kept as tribal naines those ofthe tribes from which they are descended. Brought in by war, they settled down and proceeded to cultivate the land.'

The Belgae had also expanded into the s.e. of Gaul by the 3rd century B.C. Here we Find them in the province of Gallia Narbonensis oc-cupyng the district between the Garumna, Cer-benna nions and the Rhodanus. They appear to have been divided into two main groups - the Volcae Arecomici and the Volcae Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosate tribe) on the west seperated by the river Arauris or a line between the Arauris and Orbis. The chief town of the Tectosages was Tolosa (On further topographical links between the Tec­tosages in Gaul and those in Galatia see Mac Congail 2004, 171-176) and of the Arecomici, Nemausus (Nimes) (Ptolemy, Geography II, 9). Their presence in this region is further attested to at the onset of the Second Punic War, when Livy describes the negotiations of the Volcae with the envoys of the Roman senate returning from Carthage where war had been decided on (Livy XXI, 20).

In relation to the Belgae presence in Asia Minor particularly relevant is the testimony of St. Jerome who states that in Galatia, the area populated by the descendants of those Celts participating in the expansion of the 3rd cen­tury B.C. into the region, the language spo­ken by the Galatians even in his time was very similar to that of the Treviri tribe who were also part of the Belgae confederation (Comm. On Galatians, II, 3: 'Galatas , excepto sermone Gracco, quo omnis Oriens loquitur, propriam linguam eandem pene habere quam Treviros, nec referre si aliqua exinde corruperint'). One further important piece of information on the Treviri tribe is also given by Caesar who in­forms us that they were a fierce tribe, 'not much different from the Germani' (B.G., VIII, 25. 2: 'Labienuni cum duabuslegionibus in 'Preveros mittit, quorum civitas propter Germaniae vi-cinitatem cotidianis exercitata bellis cultu et feritale non multum a Germanis differebat neque imperata umquam nisi exercitu coacta faciebat'). The Treveri inhabited the lower val­ley of the Mosella within the southern fringes of the vast Arduenna Silva (Ardennes forest) The tribal capital of the Treveri tribe was Colonia, Agusta Trevorum (Trier, Germany), was later the site of a Roman colony, and the provincial capital of Belgica itself. This close comparison of Celts and Germani is not only a Roman trait. Compare the words also of Strabo who informs us:

'Now the parts beyond the Rhenus, immedi­ately after the country of the Celti, slope towards the east and are occupied by the Germani, who, though they vary slightly from the Celtic stock in that they are wilder, taller, and have yellow­er hair, are in all other respects similar, for in build, habits, and modes of life they are such as I have said the Celti are. And I also think that it was for this reason that the Romans assigned to them the name "Germani" as though they wished to indicate thereby that they were "genu­ine" Galatae, for in the language of the Romans "germani" means "genuine" (Strabo VII, 1, 2).

In the Balkan context, place-names in the Belgic areas of S. Britain and Belgic-Gaul ap­pear to have strong parallels with the Celtic topographical traces on the Danube among the Scordisci and in north-eastern Thrace. In terms of Celtic placenanies in this area, con­taining the same element as the settlements in Scordiscian territory - Aopiec and Olodoris (Duridanov 1997, 143) the settlement Durosto-rum, today's Silistra, appears to carry a Celtic name (.w? Tomaschek II, 2, 73; Duridanov 1980, II, 5; Besevliev 1968, 422). This is particularly important as the element was obviously a com­mon one among the Remi tribe - compare also

- Durocortum, capital of the aforementioned (Belgic) Remi tribe (today's Reims) in Britain, cf. also: Duriarno (site uncertain but probably Plymouth - (RC 105.52); Durnouaria *Duro-tragum - Dorchester (Ai Itin. XIV ); Durobriuis

- Rochester (Ai Itin. II,III, IV; RC 106.37); Du-rocinto - Dorchester on Thames (RC 106.12); Duroleuo - Sittingbourne (Ai Iten. II, RC 108. 37); Duroliponte - Cambridge (Ai Iten. V, RC 106.52) etc.

Further topographical traces of these Belgic tribes are to be ascertained in the Balkans and in Galatia in the aftermath of the Celtic expan­sion into the region. In Moesia Superior we find a further link in the capital of the region Reme-siana (Itin. Ant.), Ptfiioiavd (Hierokl. Synekd.), Romesiana (Tab. Peut.) (see Tomaschek I, 90-91; Tomaschek II, 2, 69). Tomaschek first linked the name to the Belgic Remi tribe. This position is echoed by académies such as Holder (II, 1904, 11 IG); Kazarov (1919, 61) and Besevliev (1908, 420). Duridanov comments that, 'Der name ist т.е. eine laienische Bildung auf -iana (vgl. die ONN OAopevTÌava, Longiana, Candidiana) von dem hit. Adj. Reme (n)- leitet zu schein scheint' (Duridanov 1997, 136). Lending weight to this is the présence in the same area of the Kastell Bpirroupct, which is 'certainly Celtic' according to Detschew (1957, 90).

Further: on the tight bank of the Danube, between Ratiaria and Al mus (todays village Or-soja) the Roman Station (mansio) Remelodia (Tab. Peut.) is mentioned by Duridanov (1997, 134) as a Celtic structure. In addition we find an area in eastern or central Haemus (lab. Peut. VIII, 3) - Remesica. First identified by Miller (1916, 594) as, 'ein von keltischen Rime-sii bewohnter Landstrich (Strategia)' who, in bis opinion dwclt in the area between Naissus and Serdica (see Tomaschek I, 91; Holder II. 868; Kazarow 1919, 67). The Belgic Remi tribe oc-cupied the northern Plaine de Champagne on the southern iringes ofthe Ardennes (therefore neighbours ofthe aforementioned Treviri tribe) between the rivers Mosa (Meuse) and Matrona (Marne) with their capital at Diirocortuin ("But the most noteworthy of all the tribes in this re­gion of Celtica is that ofthe Remi; their metrop­oli», Duricortora, is most thickly seti led and is the city that entertains the Roman governors'; Strabo, IV, 3) There is, therefore, sufficient top-ographical évidence that the Belgic Remi tribe were one of the components of the Celtic force which expandcd into the Balkans in the first quarter ofthe 3"' Century B.C.

Besicles the well clocumented Volcae Tectos-ages, a further Gallo-Belgic tribe mentioned in the Balkan corttext have been the abovcnicn-tioned neighbours of the Remi in Gaul - the Mcldi. Tomaschek (Tomaschek I, 91) mentions them in connection with the mansio Meldia. (Gass. Dio LI 25,4). In Pannonia, Pliny further mentions a town calice! Belgitcs (Pliny III, 148), providing additional évidence of the présence ofthe Belgae in the région. Of paramount im­portance in the présent context. aie the afore­mentioned Tectosages tribe. "I he testimony ol Strabo makes the faci that thev were Belgae evCn moie cruciai. He informs us clearly that the Tectosages tribe who crossed over imo Ciala­tta, 'is namecl after the tribe in Celtica' (Strabo XII, 5, 1). The moved into Galaiia along with two other tribes, the 'Proemi and Tolistobogi ( -boii) (Memnon XI, 6; Pliny V, 42) who we are informed are named after their leaders (Strabo VII. 5, 1). This would suggest that the 'Fiocini and Tolistobogi were not intact tribal un its per se but probably made up of éléments of différ­ent tribes and therefore took their titles from their leaders. Even more important is that ali of these three groups displayed no ethnie or lin-guistic différences each other - 'Ali three spoke the same language and differed from each other in no respect' (Strabo VII, 5, 1). Il the Fiocini and Tolistobogi differed in 'no respect' from the Tectosages then it logicaily follows that they were also Belgae. One may conclude with a degree of certainty that the Galatians were ethnically Belgic which leads to the logicai con­clusion, in combination with the topographie evielence outlined above, that the Celtic inva­sion force into South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, was comprised of tribes from this con­fédération.

How does this then fit in with the testimony (Polyaen VII, 4) that thèse Celts were descend­ants ofthose who baci advanceel imo Italy a cen­tury earlier? The ejuestion remains whciher the Celts who settlecl in Pannonia, as proved by ar­chaeological material from LT Bl (Domaradski 1984, 72) (beginning of the 4th century B.C.), came from the Po valley. Fortunately the Gaul-ish tribes who moved into Italy at this juncture are well clocumented. They crossed the Alps in severa! successive waves. Bellovesus, who direct-ed the whole opération, had with bini the Insu-bres tribe (Livy V, 34-35; Jullian CCXLVII, I) and was afterwards followed by the Cenomani under Elitovius (Livy V, 35, 2). Following them came the Libui and Saltivi, the Boii and Lin­gones (Livy V, 35. 2). The Senones arrivée! last and subséquentI)^- provided the arinv ol about 30,000 which iiosseci the Appenines and took Rome (Livy V, 35, 2-3).

The effect of the terror on the Italian pe-ninsula elied hard and until the mitlclle ofthe 4th century B.C., the Romans remai ned on the defensive. From that period on they began to turn on their cnemies. Polybius tells us (hai at the first Roman attaeked the Gauls were so sur-prised that they stopped short and scattered

References

Carnutes, and Aulerci (Livy V, 34). Of ali the tribes mentioned in the Italian expansion only the Boii tribe is specifically mentioned later in the Balkan context and they formed a separate entity from those Celts who expanded into the central and eastern Balkans and Asia Minor (Strabo VII, 2, 2; VII, 3, 2; VII, 3, 11).

Many archaeologists, bascd on the availablc archaeological data, believe that there was an­other, more important wave of Celtic expansion Coming directly from the west and north-west (see Domaradski 1984,72). The lack of évidence for the main tribes who took part in the inva­sion of Italy and the présence of traces of (Belg­ic) tribes, particularly the Remi and Tectosages, in the Balkans and Asia Minor in the aftermath of the invasion of the 3rd century B.C. militâtes in favour of this theory. It also appears that, un-like those which had expanded across the Alps, the expansion into the Balkans was not made up of whole tribes but smaller client-tribes. All indications are that although the 'Italian expé­dition' mainly consisted of Gaulish tribes, the eastern expansion during the later period was composed of forces which had among them a dominant Belgae élément.

(Polyb. II, 18, 7) and peace seems to have been concluded around 335 BC (Polyb. XIX, 1). The general outcome had been that while Celtic in-roads had penetrated to the end of Italy, their conquest stopped at the Appennines. Of these five main tribes who moved across the Alps we are informed that the Insubres, Cenomani, Boii, Lingones and Senones all came direct from a great distance - from the banks of the Rhine (App., Celt., I, 2; Prop. X, 10,19). In the time of Tarquin the Proud we are told that 'Gaul was so fertile and populous that that the immense multitude threatened to be hard to ride. So the King, being old and wishing to relieve his king-dom of its excess population, declared that lie would send his sister's sons, Bellovesus and Sig-ovesus, who were energetic youths, to whatever country the Gods should indicate by omens, and they should take as many men as they wished, so that no people should be able to resist their advance. The omens assigned the Hercynian Forests to Sigovesus, and to the much more for­tunate Bellovesus the road to Italy' (Livy V, 34). Livy also gives us a list of the peoples among whom Bellovesus raised his army - namely the Bituriges, Averni, Senones, Aedui, Ambarri,

Hoards, Caravans and Illyrians: Wealth Accumulation in Antiquity

Mark Stefänovich

Марк Стефанович

Съкровища, кервани и Илири: натрупването на богатства през древността

Статията предстаем етноархеологически подход към данните иг натрупването на богатство, като за целта са разследапи организаципше па керванждиише и техните пътища в южнишерайона на Палканите през XIX и началото на XX век.

Големи богатства са откривани в тернториите, приписвани на Плирите, Траките иДаките и често се свързваш с гробове на арнстокрацията или с царски съкровища. Твърде е вероятно те да са принадлежали на месшен вожд, който е могъл да контролира важните търговски пътища.

The purpose of this paper is to attempt an cthnohistorical approach to wealth accumula­tion based on observable, dynamic behavior of Irving people in order to better interpret the archeological remains of wealth. The labo-ratory selected for this purpose is focused on the caravan Organizers and their routes in the southwest territory of the Balkans during the I9th and early 20th centuries. Rieh hoards have been found in the territorics associated with the Illyrians, Thracians and Dacians and are often associated with princely graves or royal hoards. We believe that often these hoards belonged to bigmen who controlied important trade nodes. Special attention is given here to the Illyrian state which existed in antiquity and the rela-tionship between its coastal communities and the hinterland. It is our belief that this model with further élaboration in Thrace and Dacia also could help explain the présence of so many rich hoards from antiquity.¹

Population movements in southeastern Eu­rope, past and présent, have been a major con­cern of scholars from the Balkan lands since before World War I, when studics of the ethno­graphie material relating to individual groups and their settlement patterns received greal at­tention.

For the arcas of Serbia and Montenegro three scholars stand out in the first decades of the